P2, N=253, Completed, Avalo Therapeutics, Inc. | Active, not recruiting --> Completed

These findings underscore significant safety signals associated with canakinumab, including infections, gastrointestinal/hepatobiliary disorders in children, and neoplasms in older patients. The dual temporal pattern of AEs underscores the need for both short- and long-term surveillance.

P1, N=12, Not yet recruiting, University of Michigan Rogel Cancer Center

P1, N=17, Completed, Columbia University | Active, not recruiting --> Completed

P2, N=120, Recruiting, Massachusetts General Hospital | Not yet recruiting --> Recruiting

P2/3, N=80, Recruiting, TWi Biotechnology, Inc. | Trial primary completion date: Mar 2026 --> Sep 2026

P2, N=180, Recruiting, AbbVie

P=N/A, N=160, Not yet recruiting, Novartis Pharmaceuticals

Beyond protein degradation, the diverse biological activities of thalidomide are discussed, including modulation of cytokines, angiogenesis, and immune signaling pathways. Collectively, thalidomide exemplifies how mechanistic insight, synthetic innovation and careful risk-benefit evaluation can transform a once-discarded molecule into a cornerstone of contemporary drug design.

P2, N=120, Active, not recruiting, Johns Hopkins University | Recruiting --> Active, not recruiting

P1, N=9, Active, not recruiting, NYU Langone Health | Recruiting --> Active, not recruiting | Trial completion date: Jan 2026 --> Jul 2026

Further anti-cytokine therapies include tocilizumab (anti-interleukin-6) for juvenile systemic sclerosis-associated interstitial lung disease, anti-interleukin-1β/18 combinations (MAS-825), and anti-tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Understanding disease-specific pathophysiology-from interferon activity assessment to genomic sequencing-is essential for optimal therapeutic targeting. Multicentre collaborations are needed to evaluate long-term efficacy and safety of these targeted interventions.